STRATEGIES OF GLOBALIZATION

By the term globalization, therefore will promote towards better opportunity among people in the world so that it would minimize the percentage of poverty at the global level, and above all to create the condition of tolerance and promote democratic mindset in order to secure the world security.

In order to promote something it should be based on solid strategies which will help in achieving good result, as for globalization concern the spreading of global politics should be based on various basic:

1. Economic interdependence, where it become the most important agenda of globalization, because to maintain economic interdependence among countries will promote tolerance and will reducing the possible threat of conflict among states which might escalate to global conflict.

2. Promotion of tolerance in the mind of people that would be achieved through sufficient education and proper education that would help in the promotion of the globalization’s ideas.

3. Restructuring the failed states, in which since the event of 9/11 the focus of global politics would be the restructuring the failed states, because what failed states often result in economic chaos and mass violence above all it also become the global security concern from the threat of global terrorism which emerge from the failed states.

4. In order to smooth the progress of globalization there should be supporter by sufficient power that would be on the provision of international organization that will simultaneously carry on the progress.

CONCLUSION

One and the foremost important global issue was the issue of global terrorism, the "new war on terrorism" has invaded our lives and sucked in all our usual activities. Even before the start of military action, television, newspapers, e-mail and everyday conversation had all been overwhelmed not just by grief and mourning but by the new global coalition, troop deployments, intelligence efforts, the Afghan crisis and on and on. Normal debates about issues like education and health, climate change and biodiversity, corporate responsibility and debt reduction, not to mention the Balkans or Central America, have been suspended--unless, that is, these issues can somehow be related to September 11. The crime against humanity that took place on September 11 was so horrific and so shocking that this reaction is perhaps understandable (although the world did not shut down after the genocide in Rwanda or the fall of Srebrenica). Then we need politics, especially global politics. Not as a substitute for catching the perpetrators and bringing them to justice, but as a central part of the strategy for eliminating their activities.

Since the end of cold was we have witnessed the emergence of something that could be called global politics, cold war can be regarded as the last global clash between states, and it marked the end of an era when the ultimate threat of war between determined the international state system and when the idea was polarized domestic politics, but globalization in real sense took place after the end of cold war. Nowadays, as September 11th demonstrated too graphically, where we live in an interdependence world where we cannot maintain security just through the protection of borders, since interdependence means the end of state sovereignty where state no longer become the sole actor within their own border, there are various supra state actors that cross the boundary of state. Though states are still important, but their function in a world shaped less by military power than by complex political processes involving international institutions, multinational corporations, citizen’s groups and indeed fundamentalists and terrorist. In short global politics.

Post cold war, marked with the emergence of new type of war, where it should be understood within the context of globalization, they involve transnational networks based on political claims in the name of religion or ethnicity where ideas, moneys and mercenaries are organised.These networks flourish in states where systems of taxation have collapsed, where little new wealth is being created and those areas those areas of world where states have imploded as consequence of globalization on formerly closed, authoritarian system and it involve private groups or warlords as well as the remnant of political apparatus and the objectives was not for political victory rather it is political mobilization to expand the network of extremism through the strategy of fear and hatred, to create climate of terror to eliminate moderate voices and to defeat tolerance.

These wars are very difficult to contain and very difficult to end, the only possible exit route is political, there should be strategy of winning heart and mind to replace the strategy of fear and hatred, there should an alternative politics base on tolerance and inclusiveness which is capable of defeating the politics of intolerance and exclusion and capable of preserving the space for democratic politics. In the case of the current new war, what is needed is an appeal for global politics -not global American mindset politics- justice and legitimacy, aimed at establishing the rule of law in place of war and at fostering understanding between communities in place of terror. There needs to be a much stronger role for the United Nations and serious consideration paid to ways in which legitimate political authority can be re-established in Afghanistan. Political actions has to be combined with serious intention to combat social injustice, as tolerance politics cannot survive in the climate of violence there should be the need of military action to guarantee the security of individual and not national interest minimizing the casualties on both side even in the at the risk of its own casualties. Moreover such action should be legitimate on the basis on international law, the goal of war and the method of war need to respect both law of war and human right law.

To end this project the writer suggest that in order to minimize the global problem it is important to have international organization which is more democratic in nature, where each state having equal membership, hence to bring new transformation within UN organ is the important step toward global cooperation in order to bring peace and harmony among state.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Globalization: Threat or Opportunity, By: IMF Staff April 12th 2004, http:/imf.org/external/np/ixp/ib/2000/041200.htm.
2. Walt, Stephen, Beyond bin Laden, Reshaping US Foreign Policy.
3. Kaldor, Mary, Wanted: Global Politics, November 5th 2001, http:/thenation.com/doc.mhtml?1=2001105=kaldor.
4. http://nuntia.cs.depaul.edu/globalization.flynn.htm
5. Gidden.Anthony,The Consequence of Moderenity, California;1990.
6. ftp:\\csf.Colorado.edu\psn\author\Frank.Gunder\5000-yr-WS-intro

ABOUT GLOBALIZATION

Different Meaning of Globalization

Anthony Giddens;
“Intensification of worldwide relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happening are shaped by events occurring many mile away and visa versa.”

Roland Robertso;
“A process by which the world is becoming more and more “a single place”.

The two definitions point to two axes around which globalization revolves. The first axes are connectedness the second is that of space.

Martin Albrow 1990;
“All those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society, global society”.

David Held et al 1999
“Globalization can be thought of as a process which embodies a transformation of the spatial organization of social relations and transactions.”

Robert Cox 1994
“The characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates these processes and the internationalizing of the state making states into agencies of the globalizing world”.

Martin Khor 1995
“Globalization is what we in the Third World have for several centuries called colonization.

Q: what is globalization?
A: the physical expansion of the geographical domain of the global -- that is, the increase in the scale and volume of global flows -- and the increasing impact of global forces of all kinds on local life. Moments and forces of expansion mark the major turning points and landmarks in the history of globalization

Different Usages of Globalization.

Critics have rightly objected that the term globalization is often used vaguely and inconsistently. For example there are five general usages of the word globalization which are as follows:
1. The word globalization has often been taken to mean “internationalization”, that is, an intensification of cross-border interactions and interdependence between countries.
2. The second usage is globalization as “liberalization”, that is, a process of removing government-imposed restrictions on movements between countries in order to create an ‘open’,’ integrated’ world economy.
3. A third conception has viewed globalization in terms of “universalization”, that is, the spread of various objects and experiences to people at all corners of the earth.
4. Many people have defined globalization as “westernization” especially in an Americanized form.
5. Others have identified globalization “deterritorialization” that is, a shift in geography whereby territorial places, territorial distances and territorial borders lose some of their previously overriding influence.

OBJECTIVES OF GLOBALIZATION
Globalization offers extensive opportunities for truly worldwide development but it is not progressing evenly. Some countries are becoming integrated into the global economy more quickly than others. Countries that have been able to integrate are seeing faster growth and reduced poverty. Outward-oriented policies brought dynamism and greater prosperity to much of East Asia, transforming it from one of the poorest areas of the world 40 years ago. And as living standards rose, it became possible to make progress on democracy and economic issues such as the environment and work standards.

By contrast, in the 1970s and 1980s when many countries in Latin America and Africa pursued inward-oriented policies, leads to their economic stagnation or declining of their economy, the increasing of poverty and high inflation become normal for then, but in many cases, especially Africa, adverse external developments made the problems worse, and since these region changed their policies, their incomes have begun rise it, is the best course for promoting growth, development and poverty reduction.

The crises in the emerging markets in the 1990s have made it quite evident that the opportunities of globalization do not come without risks—risks arising from volatile capital movements and the risks of social, economic, and environmental degradation created by poverty. This is not a reason to reverse direction, but for all concerned—in developing countries, in the advanced countries, and of course investors—to embrace policy changes to build strong economies and a stronger world financial system that will produce more rapid growth and ensure that poverty is reduced.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

Poverty
The Effect of Globalization is many folds and interconnected. We have seen how local and indigenous communities, state and even nations has have had their autonomy and independence diminished and how their political and economic power is transferred to transnational institutions and corporations. This reinforces what has been called the economic colonialization of countries and has widened the disparities between the rich and poor nations all the more and widens the division between the South and the North.

“It would appear that many of the effects of globalization are the same as those of colonialism, peoples are robbed of their sovereignty, they loose control of their natural resources, their ways of life are disrupted by cultural requirements laid upon them from outside, and their lives are dictated by distant centers of power... In the effects of globalization, the lives of those affected maybe little different from what life was under colonializers two generations ago. From the side of the receivers, therefore, it makes little difference whether you call it globalization of colonialism; the effects are the same.”

With changing economic relationships, we witness large demographic shifts within whole populations throughout the world; urbanization and migration are common phenomena in most third world countries. There are now more that four hundred cities in the world which have a population of more that one million inhabitants. Human beings are compressed into spaces which cannot sustain them at any level of humanness.

As countries accept a liberal market economy determined by competition and production, it has become necessary for larger numbers of people to migrate in order to seek employment. It is most striking that in recent years many of these economic migrants are women and not an insignificant amount are children. All of these working in badly paying jobs and have little protection or rights. Feminist Joan Chisttister challenges the patriarchal structures that have led to the formation of this global village.

“The globe is no here to be wrung dry by the people with enough guns, enough money, enough power to destroy the rain forests and colonize the moon. People are not here to shack the socio-economic pyramid so that the people at the top can stand on the backs of those on the bottom.”

2 Alienation

We live in a media saturated world. The market economy assisted by the media and entertainment industries, paraded before us each day, “must have’s”, (Prada shoes, Tiffany diamonds and McDonalds French fries) that are redefining what it means to be human in terms of being a consumer. In forming “global icons of culture” globalization promotes the world wide homogenization of diverse, local and indigenous cultures, social economic forms and values. Living patterns especially among the youth in different parts of the world and among very diverse cultures are being transformed to reflect a growing new global monoculture and homogenization. Language, cultural practices, religious rituals, ancient wisdom are being discarded by many indigenous peoples particularly those more exposed to foreign influences. There is a growing alienation from ancient roots and spirituality’s.

“The video machine has affected everything among a big segment of the African population; from the attitude of shame attached to the back color of one’s skin and texture of one’s hair, through sexual behavior and even orientation, to the attitude towards one’s elders and ancestors. What the TV/video has done in a decade to alienate Africa from itself is probably worse that what colonialism did in the same area in more than a century.”

A RESPONSE TO GLOBALIZATION
1. Thinking Globally Acting Locally
Two concepts help us as to understand our task better in global technological context, rediscovery of the “local” and sustainability. The local can fight back and claim a new identity. There is a need for local cultures, indigenous peoples, and communities, groups to re-imagine their identities in terms of global participation and to challenge others to do likewise. This reclaiming of the identity, power and rights of the “local” can be done in a way that protects the rights of the “whole”, in ways that are sustainable and inclusive. This reflects a vision shared by those seeking a deeper appreciation of environmental and ecological integrity. In such a vision sustainability is more than mere survival it is about a future for everyone. “It is about wholeness and inclusion; participation and responsibility; social access, concern for resources and the quality of life.”

2. Commitment to the poor and the powerless
Within the past number of years there has been growth in the number of organizations that seek to reflect on Globalization, and offer their protest at the growing dominance of market capitalism. These in recognizing the dangers involved in aligning themselves with structures of oppression, give voice to the growing dissent and dissatisfaction with a society in which the needs of the majority are not met and where the most vulnerable suffer greater powerlessness. Their formation and protest amounts to a commitment to the poor and the powerless.

Indian Church F Wilfred writes,
“The present day development taking places in the country are bound to look different when they are seen through the eyes of the poor. Seeing societies through the eyes of the poor and to convert to their cause in the age of globalization is the need of the hour, the call of the gospel.”

The International Forum of Globalization which brings together, economists, intellectuals and resource people to provide reflection and resource on the Globalization outline their particular principals and plans as follows. “We advocate the revitalization of local communities by promoting maximum self reliance, economic and political control and environmental sustainability. The establishment of economic enterprise and accompanying institutions that enhance people’s ability to exercise democratic control over all the decisions that affect them, while promoting meaningful and sustainable livelihoods for all. The recognition of the rights and sovereignty of indigenous peoples, the encouragement of biodiversity, cultural diversity and diversity of social, economic and political forms.”

We can recognize the recurring theme of empowerment. Where the rights of those who are most vulnerable are sought after and where those who are powerless and voiceless are given a voice. The recognition of the value and dignity of indigenous people and their local situation is essential. It points to a respect for the wisdom and integrity of people within their own local context and their ability to solve their own problems. Such empowerment is never dominating of demeaning but life-giving and respectful.

3. Contribution of the Missionary Societies and Missionary Congregations.
Missionary congregations and societies are uniquely placed to respond creatively and imaginatively to the challenges of a globalize world. They have been able to establish presence’s in many parts of the world, among local communities and diverse cultures, that has been in the main respectful, sympathetic and compassionate to the local situation. They can provide reliable sources of information, from areas of conflict, oppression and injustice. They can provide links and networks of solidarity with “home based” NGO’s and action groups who are in need of animation and resources. Missionary societies and religious congregations acting in harmony and speaking with a unified voice offer a challenge to Multinational Corporations and Governments to act in a ways that takes account of the dignity and value of the local community, situation and human person.

In becoming aware of the context our context and in the way that globalization is shaping our world we can better prepare ourselves and other missionary groups to think and act in ways that are sustainable and holistic. We can then seek to put in place adequate structures that reflect this engagement.

Globalization of World's Politics

EVOLUTION OF GLOBALIZATION

Globalization since the fourteenth centuryThe Segmented Trading World of Eurasia, Circa 1350

By 1350, networks of trade which involved frequent movements of people, animals, goods, money, and micro-organisms ran from England to China, running down through France and Italy across the Mediterranean to the Levant and Egypt, and then over land across Central Asia (the Silk Road) and along sea lanes down the Red Sea, across the Indian Ocean, and through the Straits of Malacca to the China coast.The Mongols had done the most to create a political framework for the overland network as attested by both Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo. The spread of Muslim trading communities from port to port along the littorals of the Indian Ocean created a world of sea trade there analogous to the world of land routes in Central Asia.

This was a world of commodities trades in which specialized groups of merchants concentrated their energies on bringing commodities from one port to another, and rarely did any single merchant network organize movements of goods across more than a few segments of the system. For instance, few Europeans ventured out of the European parts of the system; and the most intense connections were among traders in the Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal or the South China Sea regions of the oceanic system.

The novelty of the physical integration of the trading system is indicated by the spread of the Black Death in Europe -- which was repeated in waves from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries -- because the plague traveled from inland Mongolia and China to Europe by land and sea, lurking in rodents that stowed away on ships, feeding on their food supplies. The epidemics in Europe indicated a relative lack of exposure to the plague bacillus before then -- and though some outbreaks are indicated along the coast and in China at the same time, it appears that plague was endemic to the Asian parts of the system.

The parts of the system depended upon one another and with increasing frequency travelers’ record movements across the whole system are recorded from 1300 onward, as by Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, and others. Janet Abu Lughod argues plausibly that the so-called "rise of Europe" after 1500 followed a mysterious period of decline in the Chinese part of the system, and that in the 1300s, it was actually the vast expansion in production in China that was most responsible for the integration of the trading system -- because all roads led to China in the medieval trading world. The expansion of the Chinese economy in this period is well documented and included agriculture and industry -- and the Mongol regime in China was significant force in tying China into the world economy more forcefully.

Coercion and state power was critical in producing stable sites of trade and accumulation along routes of exchange and in protecting travelers on the long overland routes between sites. There does not seem to have been any significant military power at sea.

Exchange within the various regional parts of the system was connected by networks of trade to commercial activity within trade and power relations in other parts -- in a segmented system of connections, like pearls on a string -- and observers made it very clear that states took a keen interest in promoting and protecting trade, even as rulers also used force to extort revenues and coerce production here and there.

In South Asia, it should be noted, the Delhi Sultanate and Deccan states provided a system of power that connected the inland trading routes of Central Asia with the coastal towns of Bengal and the peninsula and thus to Indian Ocean trade for the first time.

Ibn Battuta as much as the Khaljis and Tughlaqs represent the nature of the agrarian environment in the fourteenth century, and though warriors did use force to collect taxes, there was also substantial commercial activity in farming communities over and above what would have been necessary to pay taxes. Agrarian commercialism inside regions of trading activity clearly supported increasing manufacturing and commercial activity -- and also a growth spurt in the rise of urbanization.

Ibn Battuta (1350) -- like Abu-l Fazl (1590) and Hamilton Buchanan (1800) -- viewed his world in commercial terms, and standing outside the state, he does not indicate that coercion was needed to generate agrarian commodities. At each stop in his journey, he observed everyday commercialism. "Bangala is a vast country, abounding in rice," he says, "and nowhere in the world have I seen any land where prices are lower than there." In Turkestan, "the horses ... are very numerous and the price of them is negligible." He was pleased to see commercial security, as he did during eight months trekking from Goa to Quilon. "I have never seen a safer road than this," he wrote, "for they put to death anyone who steals a single nut, and if any fruit falls no one picks it up but the owner." He also noted that "most of the merchants from Fars and Yemen disembark" at Mangalore, where "pepper and ginger are exceedingly abundant." In 1357, John of Marignola, an emissary to China from Pope Benedict XII, also stopped at Quilon, which he described it as "the most famous city in the whole of India, where all the pepper in the world grows."

The European Seaborne Empires, 1500-1750
A. Phase one: the militarization of the sea, 1500-1600

Vasco da Gama rounded Africa in 1498 and forced rulers in the ports in the Indian Ocean system to pay tribute and to allow settlements of Portuguese military seamen who engaged in trade, supported conversion, acquired local lands, and established a loose network of imperial authority over the sea lanes, taxing ships in transit in return for protection. The militarization of the sea lanes produced a competition for access to ports and for routes of safe transit that certainly did not reduce the overall volume of trade or the diversity of trading communities -- but it did channel more wealth into the hands of armed European competitors for control of the sea. The Indian Ocean became more like Central Asia in that all routes and sites became militarized as European competition accelerated over the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as the Portuguese were joined by the Dutch, French, and British.

B. Phase Two: early modern world economy, 1600-1800

The commodities trades continued as before well into the seventeenth century, concentrating on local products from each region of the Eurasian system -- Chinese silk and porcelain, Sumatra spices, Malabar cinnamon and pepper, etc. -- but by the 1600s, the long distance trade was more deeply entrenched in the production process. An expansion of commercial production and commodities trades was supported by the arrival into Asia of precious metals from the New World, which came both from the East and West (the Atlantic and Pacific routes -- via Palestine and Iran, and also the Philippines and China).

Like the plague in the 1300s, new arrivals in Europe after 1500 signal the rise of a new kind of global system. In medieval Europe, there was no cotton cloth, and no cotton cloth was produced for export anywhere except in the coastal regions of the Indian Ocean. Europeans began not only to buy this cloth for export to Europe, but to commission cloth of specific types for specific markets, and to take loans from local bankers and engage in commodities trades within the Indian Ocean system so as to raise the value of the merchant capital that they could re-export to Europe.

By 1700, European capital invested in trading companies traveled regularly to Asia on ships insured and protected by European companies and governments, in order to secure goods produced on commission for sale and resale within Asian markets, with the goal of returning to Europe with cargo of sufficient value to generate substantial profits for investors. Circuits of capital thus moved along trade routes, across militarized sea lanes, and organized production of cloth for export in Asia. This Eurasian extension of the circuits of merchant capital did not only emanate from Europe; it also included large expansions within Asia itself, not only among the merchants and bankers who financed the regional trade and facilitated European exports, but also along financiers who provided state revenues in the form of taxation. The connections between state revenue collection and commodities trades became very complex and the Europeans were surrounded by Asian "portfolio capitalists" (as they have been dubbed by Sanjay Subrahmanyam and Chris Bayly) who operated both in the so-called private and state sectors.

By 1700, also, competing European powers also controlled the Atlantic Economy; and like cotton from Asia, sugar and tobacco from the Americas arrived in Europe as commodities within circuits of world capital accumulation (see Samir Amin, Accumulation on a World Scale). The role of primitive accumulation was much greater in the Atlantic System, including the capture of native lands in the Americas, forced labor in the silver mines of Peru, the purchase of slaves captured in wars along the African coast, the forced transportation of slaves to the Americas, and the construction of the slave plantation economy in coastal Americas. The volume of the slave trade peaked around 1750.

By 1800, the Atlantic and Indian Ocean systems were connected to one another via the flow of currencies and commodities and by the operations of the British, French, and Dutch overseas companies -- all being controlled, owned, or "chartered" by their respective states. The 17-18th centuries were the age of mercantilism, in which state power depended directly on the sponsoring and control of merchant capital, and merchant capital expanded under the direct protection and subsidy of the state treasury. It has been argued that the expansion of "portfolio capitalists" in the Indian ocean reflected a similar kind of mercantilist trend in Asia during the eighteenth century.

Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, and Ch'ing empires provided an overland system of economic integration and interconnection that was more expansive than any before. Asian capital, coercive power, and productive energies were dominant in determining economic trends in the Asian parts of the world economy. European activity has long received the bulk of the attention by historians concerned with the integration of the early modern world economy, but from Istanbul to Samarkhand, Cochin, Dhaka, Malacca, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Tokyo, they were not the most prominent players in most of the major sites of economic and political activity until the later nineteenth century. Europeans were dominant only in the Atlantic System in the early eighteenth century -- the hemispheres of the world economy remained, in this respect, very different.

The World Empires of Industrial Capitalism, 1750-1950.
A. Phase one: the formation of national economies

Basic eighteenth century economic conditions continued well into the nineteenth century, until the railway and steam ship began lower transportation costs significantly, and to create new circuits of capital accumulation that focused on sites of industrial production in Europe and the US. But important structural changes in the world economy began in the later decades of the eighteenth century.

First, European imperial control of the Americas was broken, first in the north and then the south. This accelerated the rise of capital and capitalists as a force in the reorganization of nationally defined states; whose professes purpose was the political representation of the interests of their constituent property owners and entrepreneurs. The independence movements in the Americas and revolutions in Haiti and France produced new kinds of national territoriality within the world economy, and states that strove for greater control of resources within their boundaries than any before. Adam Smith and Frederick Hegel were two important theorists of this transitional period -- both of whom took a universal few of national issues, and theorized a great transformation away from an age of kings and emperors toward an age ruled by peoples and nations.

Second, European imperial expansion shifted into Asia, where the use of military power by European national states for the protection of their national interests became a new force in the process of capital accumulation. Chartered companies were criticized by Adam Smith as a state-supported monopoly -- for the English East India Company had a monopoly on the sale of all commodities imported into England from the "East Indies," which included all the land east of Lebanon -- and this early version of the multi-national corporation expanded its power base in India with government support but without official permission. The British Empire expanded without official policy sanction throughout most of the nineteenth century, as British troops went in simply to protect the operations of British nationals operating as merchants overseas.

The national state thus became both a mechanism for the control of territory within its own borders and for the expansion of national enterprise around the world. The US expanded over land and into Latin America by the expansion of the enterprise of its citizens and expansion of its military power, as the British Empire expanded into Asia and then Africa -- along with the French and Dutch. In the discourse of nationalism, the "nation" and "empire" lived in their opposition to one another; but "economic imperialism" was standard practice for economically expansive nation states, and "gun boat diplomacy" became a typical feature of economic transactions among hostile states.

The 1840s form a watershed in the institutionalization of a world regime of national expansion and international economic organization -- when the British navy forced open the interior of China to British merchant settlements with military victories waged during the Opium Wars to protect the right of British merchants to trade in opium in China; and when the US Admiral Perry forced the Japanese to open their ports to American trade.

B. Phase Two: world circuits of industrial capital

The integration of separate, specialized world regions of agricultural and industrial production within a world economy of capital accumulation occurred during the nineteenth century. The industrial technologies of the factory, railway, telegraph, gattling gun, and steam ship facilitated this development; but as important were the organizational technologies of modernity, which include state bureaucracy, land surveys, census operations, government statistics, national legal systems, and the like. The result was not only the creation of regions of the world with their own distinctive economic specializations, integrated into one world system of production; but also the construction of a single world of rules and regulations for the operation of the system. This change did not happen over night, but it was clearly moving ahead at the start of the nineteenth century and well advanced by the end.

Institutional markers: (1) the abolition of the slave trade and (2) the rise of international protocols for the operation of national competition at a world scale, culminating in the treaties of Berlin that organized the partition of Africa in the 1880s.

Market indicators: (1) the South Sea Bubble and the crashes of the 1820s and 1830s, (2) the depression of 1880-1900 and its impact on Africa.

PEREMPUAN DAN PERPOLITIKAN NASIONAL, PROSES MENUJU KESETARAAN

Mengingat ulang Deklarasi Meksiko 1975 tentang Kesetaraan Perempuan (Equality of Women) dan apa yang mungkin dapat mereka sumbangkan demi pengembangan sumberdaya manusia dan kedamaian dunia, dalam deklarasi ini menyebutkan bahwa perempuan adalah sebagai aktor vital dalam upaya mempromosikan kedamaian dunia dari berbagi sektor mulai dari keluarga, komunitas masyarakat dan partisipasi dalam politik. Indonesia menjadi salah satu dari 101 negara yang turut meratifikasi ICCPR yang menjadi landasan legal dalam pelaksanaan hak-hak perempuan di negara yang bersangkutan dalam rangka pemenuhan standar hak asasi manusia yang didalamnya termasuk hak perempuan.

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